A modern historical illustration of Julius Caesar based on ancient descriptions. Caesar’s extraordinary personal magnetism inspired fierce loyalty among his soldiers and deep admiration among many Romans, helping make him one of the most powerful men in Roman history.
By 59 BCE, the Roman Republic was rich and powerful, but years of corruption, slave revolts, and civil wars had left it deeply divided. Many Romans believed only a strong leader could restore order. The ambitious Julius Caesar seemed an obvious choice.
Caesar Becomes Consul
Gaius Julius Caesar was a patrician and popular general when he was first elected consul in 59 BCE. Marcus Bibulus was Caesar’s co-consul, but Caesar paid no attention to the Senate.
Caesar ordered the redistribution of land to the poor, which made him popular with the Roman people but angered many wealthy landowning senators. Bibulus attempted to veto Caesar’s law, but Caesar’s mob attacked him. The terrified Bibulus retired to his home, leaving Caesar in complete control.
The First Triumvirate
The Senate tried to block Caesar’s decisions, so he partnered with two generals named Crassus and Pompey. Historians often refer to this alliance as the First Triumvirate. A triumvirate is a partnership of three equal rulers. Though neither Crassus nor Pompey served as consul, the three men were popular enough to ignore the Senate.
Caesar Goes to Gaul
Under Roman law, an official could not be arrested while in power. Knowing the Senate could jail him after his consulship, Caesar arranged to be appointed governor of a Roman province in Gaul. The Senate agreed because it would send Caesar far away to land that is now southern France.
Caesar used his personal fortune to build his army’s loyalty in Gaul. For the next nine years, he led troops across western Europe, killing or enslaving millions and conquering lands for the Roman Republic.
Crossing the Rubicon
In 49 BCE, the Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome as a private citizen. Fearing arrest, Caesar ignored the order and marched toward Rome. At the Rubicon River, he faced a choice. If he crossed the river with his army, Pompey and the Senate would declare war. If he turned back, his career would be over. When people say they are “crossing the Rubicon,” they refer to a significant decision that cannot be undone.
As Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his army, he reportedly declared, “The die is cast.” Like throwing a die in a game, the decision could not be taken back. By crossing the stream, Caesar accepted civil war and changed the course of Roman history forever.
Civil War
As Caesar’s army approached Rome, many frightened senators fled. Pompey announced that “Rome cannot be defended” and retreated south with his army. The remaining senators named Caesar dictator. In ancient Rome, a dictator was a ruler with complete control. Caesar and his army pursued Pompey throughout the Mediterranean until Pompey fled to Egypt.
Caesar and Cleopatra
When Caesar arrived in Egypt, he met Ptolemy XIII, the ten-year-old king. Hoping to gain favor, Ptolemy presented Caesar with Pompey’s decapitated head. Caesar then met and fell in love with Cleopatra, Ptolemy’s older sister. He spent a year with Cleopatra before returning to Rome as a conquering hero.
Caesar and Cleopatra were strong-willed leaders who found common cause in one another. Their partnership united Rome’s greatest general with Egypt’s most powerful queen. Together, they forged a political alliance that became a personal relationship.
Dictator for Life
The Senate elected, then re-elected Caesar consul, breaking the Roman tradition that consuls served only one year. While in power, Caesar settled 80,000 soldiers in colonies, constructed buildings and monuments throughout the city, and reformed the calendar. In 44 BCE, Caesar arranged to have the Senate name him dictator for life. Previous dictators had served only during emergencies and for no more than six months.
The Ides of March
Many senators became enraged because Caesar broke with Roman tradition and behaved as if he were a king. On March 15, 44 BCE, a mob of sixty senators stabbed the dictator to death in the Roman Forum. Ironically, Caesar fell to his death at the foot of a statue of Pompey, the general whom Caesar defeated.
Suetonius and Plutarch wrote that Caesar refused to run or beg for mercy as the senators attacked. Their accounts portray the Roman dictator meeting death with remarkable dignity. Bold, decisive, and fearless, Caesar remained true to his character until the end.
The End of the Republic
With Caesar dead, Rome fell into a period of civil wars. Although the Republic continued to exist in name, the fighting led to the return of one-man rule in Rome.
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